劍橋?qū)W生英語語法

用戶評(píng)論 (總計(jì)2條)

•   　　語法小記
  　　
  　　一、
  　　1. English language: 1) Standard English: ①formal style；②informal style
  　　 2) Non-standard English
  　　
  　　 2. Approches to grammar: 1）descriptive approches
  　　 2）prescriptive approches、
  　　
  　　 3. Syntax, morphology have to do with the grammatical form of sentence, while semantics not.
  　　
  　　 4. Two kinds of sentence: 1) clausal sentences——having the form of a clause
  　　 2）compound sentences——having the form of a coordination of clauses
  　　
  　　 5. clause: subject+predicate phrase: 1)noun phrase 2)verb phrase
  　　Lexeme 詞位
  　　
  　　 6. The parts of speech: 1) noun (including pronouns)
  　　 2) verb
  　　 3) adjective function: ①attributive ②predicative
  　　 4)determinatives
  　　 5)adverb function: as modifiers of verbs, adjectives, adverbs
  　　 6)propositions
  　　 7)coordinator 并列詞
  　　 8)subordinators 主從詞 7）+ 8） =conjunction
  　　
  　　 7. canonical clause: 1)positive 肯定句 2) declarative 陳述句 3) main clause 主句 4) non-coodinate
  　　 8. words: 1)bases
  　　 2)affixes: prefixes+suffixes
  　　
  　　二、
  　　 1. verb paradigm: 1)primary forms(有時(shí)式): ①preterite: past tense 過去時(shí)
  　　 (have tense inflection) ②3rd singular present
  　　 ③plain present
  　　 2)secondary forms(無時(shí)式): ①plain form 素形，原形
  　　 (no tense inflecyion) ②gerund-participle 動(dòng)名詞
  　　 ③past participle 過去分詞
  　　
  　　 2. verb form
  　　plain form: 1)imperative; 2)subjunctive; 3) infinitival: to-infinitivals;bare infinitivals 不定式
  　　
  　　 3. Finite clause: 1)primary forms
  　　 2)imperative
  　　3)subjunctive 2) and 3) are plain form
  　　Non-finite clause: 1)infinitival不定式
  　　 2)gerund-participle
  　　 3)past participle：-ed participle；-ing participle
  　　
  　　
  　　三、
  　　 1.tense時(shí)，aspect 態(tài)，mood 語氣，voice式
  　　
  　　 2.verb：1）auxiliary verb：①modal：can，may，must，will
  　　 ②non-modal：be，have，do，dare，need
  　　
  　　3.primary tense：1）preterite：①past time ②modal remoteness：the modal preterite,the cases not presented factual associated with modality,not time ③backshift:in indirect reported speech
  　　
  　　4.aspect態(tài):1)perfective完成態(tài) 2）imperfective 非完成態(tài)，即progressive
  　　An aspect：its main use is to indicate how the speakers views the situation described in the clause with respect not to its location in time but to its temperal structure or properties.
  　　
  　　5.perfect:1)present perfect 2)preterite perfect:①past time
  　　 ②modal remoteness
  　　 ③backshift
  　　
  　　6.use of the modal auxiliaries: 1)espistamic認(rèn)知 2）denotic 義務(wù) 3）dynamic 動(dòng)力
  　　
  　　
  　　四、
  　　 1.one clause can have clause structure:1)subject 2)predicate:①predicator ②object:O(d),O(i) ③complement ④adjunct 附語
  　　
  　　 2.1）predicator：has to be licensed by the particular head verb
  　　2）Complement: （補(bǔ)語：謂語所要求的語句成分）a kind of dependent that must be licensed by the head
  　　3）Adjunct：附語：可選的語句
  　　
  　　3. The four properties of subject：1)basic position before the verb
  　　 2)case: in nominative case
  　　 3)verb agreement
  　　 4)subject-auxiliary inversion
  　　
  　　4. Diret and indirect objects: O(d), O(i)
  　　 When they co-occur in canonical clauses，the O（i）precedes O（d）.
  　　Sue gave Max the photo. Single underline：O（i）；doubled—underline：O（d）
  　　 Sue gave the photo to Max. Single underline：O（d）；doubled—underline：O（i）
  　　
  　　5. The syntactic differences between PC and Objects: 1)PC can have the form of Adjp while O can’t. 2)PC can have the form of a bare role NP. 3)PC does not coresspond to the subject of a passive clause.
  　　
  　　6. Five canonical clause structure:1)S-P
  　　 2)S-P-PC
  　　 3)S-P-O(d)
  　　 4)S-P-O(d)-PC
  　　 5)S-P-O(i)-O(d)
  　　
  　　
  　　五、
  　　 1.Three main types of dependent in the structure of NP:1) determiners: 限定詞①definitive ②indefinite
  　　 2) complements
  　　 3) modifiers
  　　
  　　 2. Subclasses of noun:1) prnouns:distinguish from other two by its inability to take determiners as dependent
  　　 2) proper nouns
  　　 3) common nouns
  　　
  　　 3. determinative phrase: a determinative with dependents function as the head of a phrase.
  　　 Definite article: the——indicate that the head of the NP is considered sufficient in the context to identify the referent.
  　　indefinite article: a
  　　
  　　4. Pronouns: 1)personal 2)reciprocal 3)interrogative 疑問代詞4)relative 關(guān)系代詞
  　　 Two uses of pronouns: 1) deictic 指示 2)anaphoric 回指 3）antecedent
  　　
  　　5. Choice of a singular human pronoun without sex specification: they, in a secondary use that is interpreted semantically as singular.
  　　1)Everyone’s here,aren’t they?
  　　2)We need a manager who is reasonably flexible in their approch.
  　　
  　　6.Personal noun:1)non-reflexive case form:①Nominative 主格;Accusative 賓格 ②Genitive 所有格：dependent and independent
  　　 2）reflexive
  　　Case 格
  　　
  　　7． NP：1）determiner：determinative
  　　 2）head：nominal ①head：noun ②modifier
  　　
  　　
  　　六、
  　　 1.Distinctive properties of prototypical adjectives：1）function：attributive；predicative； 2）grade：plain，comparative and superlative 3）modification、
  　　
  　　 2.1）gradable adjectives：have comparative and superlative forms and take degree modifiers
  　　2）non-gradable
  　　
  　　3.The structure of adjective phrases：1）head
  　　 2）dependents：complements or modifiers
  　　
  　　
  　　
  　　七、
  　　 1. The traditional class of prepositions前置詞：1）they take NPs as complement
  　　 （not essential）
  　　 2）no inflection
  　　 3）meaning：relations in space or time
  　　 4）function：head of wide range of dependent
  　　2.Function：dependent of 1）noun；2）verb；3）be
  　　 3.She went aboard.
  　　 He sat outside. Propostion,not adverb.
  　　
  　　
  　　八、
  　　 Negation：1）subclausal negation：use prefixes
  　　 2）clause negation：vebal negation；non-verbal nagation
  　　
  　　
  　　九、
  　　 1. Main clause type characteristic speech act
  　　1）declarative making a statement
  　　2）close interrogative asking a close question
  　　3）open interrogative asking an open question
  　　4）exclamative making an exclamatory statement
  　　5）imperative issuing a directive
  　　
  　　 2. Interrogative：1）closed interrogative：polar questions；alternative questions
  　　 2）open interrogative
  　　
  　　 3. Exclamative what and how
  　　 Exclamative what has the syntax of an adjective，eg. What a car that was？
  　　 Exclamative how is invariably an adverb，eg. How they deceived us？
  　　
  　　
  　　十、
  　　 1. Three major subclasses of finite subordinate clause：1）relative clause定語從句
  　　 2）comparative clause
  　　 3）content clause名詞性從句
  　　2.Content clause：1）declarative content clause
  　　 2）interrogative content clause
  　　 3）exclamative content clause
  　　Traditionally，名詞性從句包括：主語從句，同位語從句，賓語從句，形容詞從句。
  　　
  　　3. Relative clause：a special kind of subordinate clause whose primary function is
  　　as a modifier to a noun or a nominal.
  　　 Relative clause：1）wh relatives：who，whose，which，when，where，why
  　　 2）non-wh relatives：that relative and bare relative
  　　The relationship between relative pronouns and antecedents is anaphora.
  　　
  　　4. 1）Integrated relatives整合性關(guān)系從句：not marked off by commas
  　　 2）supplement relative 增補(bǔ)性關(guān)系從句
  　　The differences between them：① intonation and punctuation——phonological facts
  　　 ② interpretation——semantic facts
  　　 ③ syntax
  　　
  　　Traditionally, 1）restrictive relatives 限定性關(guān)系從句
  　　 2）non-restrictive relatives 非限定性關(guān)系從句
  　　
  　　
  　　十一、
  　　 1.Grade：1）plain forms； 2）comparative forms； 3）superlative forms
  　　 Comparison：comparison between a primary term and a secondary term
  　　
  　　 2. more/less as a 1）determinative——inflectional form of many/little
  　　 2）adverb
  　　
  　　 3. comparative clause（usually finite）：a kind of subordinate clause functioning as complement to that，as or like and expressing one of the two terms in
  　　a comparison.
  　　
  　　 4. Differences from two other subordinate clause：comparative clause is obligatorily reduced in certain ways relative to the structure of main clauses.
  　　
  　　
  　　十二、
  　　1. Four kinds of non-finite clause（非定式語句）：1）gerund-participial
  　　 2) past participial
  　　 3) to- infinitival to
  　　 4) bare infinitival 光桿不定式 3）and 4） are infinitival clauses 不定語句
  　　
  　　2. Non-finite clauses contains a predicate that has the form of a VP headed by a secondary form of the verb. They do not have primary tense.
  　　
  　　 3. Subjectless non-finites: most of the non-finite clauses have no understood suject.
  　　 Subjectless non-finites:1) syntactic determination——given a understood subject
  　　 2) no syntactic determination——not given a understood subject
  　　
  　　3. Non-finite clauses functioning as adjunct: dangling modifiers/participles
  　　
  　　
  　　十三、
  　　1. Coordination is a non-headed construction
  　　Coordinators: and, or, but.
  　　
  　　 2. Distinctive syntactic properties of coordinators:
  　　1) unlimited number of coordinator
  　　 2) coordinates must be syntactically similar
  　　A coordination of X and Y is admissible at a given place in sentence structure if and only if each of X and Y is individually admissible at that place with the same function.
  　　 3) impossibility of preposing an expanded coodinate.
  　　
  　　
  　　十四、
  　　 1．Information-packaging constructions:1) passive construction
  　　 2) extraposition construction
  　　 3) existential construction
  　　
  　　2. Passive clause
  　　 The system of voice:1) active voice——the default in the voice system
  　　 2) pasive voice
  　　 In English there is a broad perference for packaging information so that subject reprensent old information.
  　　
  　　Informal style:1)be-passive;2)get-passive;3)bare-passive
  　　
  　　3. extraposition外置：a clause construction which prototypically has dummy it as subject and a postbverbal subordinate clause.
  　　1)subject extraposition 主語外置
  　　 2）internal complement extraposition 內(nèi)部補(bǔ)語外置（賓語外置）
  　　It disturbs her that he was acquitted.形式主語
  　　I find it disappointing that he gave up.形式賓語
  　　
  　　4. existential clauses:1)bare existentials
  　　 dummy there 2)extended existentials：contain an additional element
  　　
  　　5. the it-cleft construction It分裂構(gòu)造強(qiáng)調(diào)句
  　　
  　　
  　　十五、
  　　1. Morphology 形位學(xué) 1) inflectional morphology—ties in mainly with syntax
  　　 2) lexical morphology —mainly revelent to the content of the dictionary
  　　
  　　2. inflectional morphology
  　　morphological operations:1)suffixation take—takes
  　　 2)modification take—took
  　　
  　　3. consontant doubling
  　　The final consontant letter of the base is doubled if
  　　1）doubling occurs before suffixes beginning with a vowel—stopped，stopping，fatter
  　　2）base ends in single consontant
  　　3）consontant letter follows single-letter vowel symbol
  　　4）stress on final syllable
  　　
•   wa

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