環(huán)境科學(xué)與工程原理

前言

Following the format of the first edition, the second edition of Principles of Environmental Engineering and Science is designed for use in an introductory sophomore-level engineeringcourse. The book covers the basic, traditional subject matter that forms the foundation of more advanced courses. As such, it provides the fundamental science and engineering principles that instructors in more advanced courses may assume are common knowledge for an advanced undergraduate.In our offerings of this course, we have found that mature college students in allied fields—such as biology, chemistry, resource development, fisheries and wildlife, microbiology,and soils science—have no difficulty with the material.We have assumed the students using this text have had courses in chemistry, physics, and biology as well as sufficient mathematics to understand the concepts of differentiation and integration.Basic environmental chemistry and biology concepts are introduced at the beginning of the book. In the mathematical presentations, we have provided only a few derivations. In our experience, the more rigorous approach of derived mathematics may yield a result that is not more but less demonstrative—and even confusing—to the beginning engineering student.A major theme carried through the text is mass balance. Chapter 4 is an introduction to the concept of materials and energy balance as a tool for understanding environmental processesand solving environmental engineering problems. It is then applied in the hydrology, sustainability, water quality, water and wastewater treatment, air pollution, and solid and hazardous waste chapters.Each chapter concludes with a list of review items, the traditional end-of-chapter problems, and, perhaps less traditional, discussion questions. The review items have been written in the "objective" format of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET). Instructors will find this particularly helpful for directing student review for exams, for assessing continuous quality improvement for ABET, and for preparing documentation for ABET curriculum review. We have found the discussion questions useful as a “minute check” or spot quiz item to see if the students understand concepts as well as number crunching.The second edition has been thoroughly revised and updated. With the addition of 73 new end-of-chapter problems, there are now a total of 395 problems. The following paragraphs summarizethe major changes in this edition.? Eleven case studies have been added to introduce material in appropriate chapters.? Adiscussion of the history of environmental engineering and environmental science is now included in the first chapter. The discussion of laws and regulations has been replaced by abrief discussion of the process by which laws and regulations are developed. Anew, stand-alone chapter on biology has been added (Chapter 3).All the example problems and end-of-chapter problems on risk assessment have been revised to incorporate new estimates of intake and slope factors.A quantitative introduction to well drawdown has been added to the hydrology chapter (Chapter 7).The chapter on resources (Chapter 8) has been completely revised and slimmed down. Its focus is on sustainability. A discussion of biofuels and hydrogen fuel for automobiles isincluded.The water quality management chapter (Chapter 9) has been revised with updated material on arsenic, nanoparticles, and endocrine disruptors.dav22351_fm.qxd 12/14/07 10:40 Page xi The water treatment chapter (Chapter 10) has been revised to include new material on membrane filtration and AOPs.Anew introduction, a new section on treatment standards, and a new section on membrane treatment have been added to the wastewater chapter (Chapter 11).The air pollution standards have been updated and new material on mercury, lead, and PM2.5 has been added to the air pollution chapter (Chapter 12). In addition, the sections on origin andfate, indoor air, acid rain, ozone depletion, global warming, and control of automobile emissions have been updated.The solid waste chapter discussion of collection methods has been updated to include collection of compostable material (Chapter 13).In the hazardous waste chapter, a new section and example problem, on pump and treat, has been added (Chapter 14).A revised introduction to the noise pollution chapter (Chapter 15) includes the impact of hearing loss on people, as well as the economic impact of noise pollution on civil engineeringprojects and businesses. A new discussion of the Ldn concept and a revision of the method of calculating airborne transmission of noise are included.The ionizing radiation chapter has three new example problems and an updated discussion of radioactive waste management (Chapter 16).Online ResourcesAn instructor’s manual and set of PowerPoint slides are available online davismasten for qualified instructors. Please inquire with your McGraw-Hill representative for the necessary access password. The instructor’s manual includes sample course outlines, solved example exams, and detailed solutions to the end-of-chapter problems. In addition, there are suggestions for using the pedagogic aids in the next.As always, we appreciate any comments, suggestions, corrections, and contributions for future revisions.Mackenzie L. DavisSusan J. Masten

內(nèi)容概要

　　《環(huán)境科學(xué)與工程原理（第2版）》系統(tǒng)介紹了環(huán)境科學(xué)與工程的原理與方法。書中內(nèi)容包括：化學(xué)及生物學(xué)原理，物質(zhì)與能量平衡，生態(tài)系統(tǒng)，風(fēng)險(xiǎn)認(rèn)知、評(píng)估與管理，水文學(xué)，可持續(xù)能源、礦物資源及土壤資源，水質(zhì)管理，水和廢水處理，空氣污染，固體廢物工程，危險(xiǎn)廢物管理，噪聲污染，電離輻射。本書配有大量例題，每章后附有本章復(fù)習(xí)、習(xí)題、問題討論、參考文獻(xiàn)等。　　《環(huán)境科學(xué)與工程原理（第2版）》具有以下特點(diǎn)：　　注重環(huán)境問題的綜合性，強(qiáng)調(diào)科學(xué)原理、倫理及安全，而不是具體的工程設(shè)計(jì)?！　∩婕皟?nèi)容廣泛，如風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理、各種環(huán)境污染問題及相關(guān)法規(guī)和實(shí)踐等?！　【C合考慮物質(zhì)與能量平衡，并將其作為分析和解決環(huán)境工程問題的工具?！　　董h(huán)境科學(xué)與工程原理（第2版）》可作為高等院校環(huán)境類專業(yè)及生物學(xué)、化學(xué)等專業(yè)的教材，并可供從事環(huán)境保護(hù)的科技工作者參考。

作者簡介

作者：(美國)戴維斯 (Davis.M.L) (美國)馬斯坦 (Masten.S.J)

書籍目錄

ContentsivPreface xiAcknowledgments xiiiAbout the Authors xivAbout the Cover Artist xv1 Introduction 11 C1 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE  2Natural Science 2Environmental Science 2Quantitative Environmental Science 21 C2 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTALENGINEERING  3Engineering 3Environmental Engineering 31 C3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 3Overview 3Hydrology 4Water Treatment 4Wastewater Treatment 8Air Pollution Control 9Solid and Hazardous Waste 91 C4 HOW ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERSAND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTISTSWORK TOGETHER 101 C5 INTRODUCTION TO PRINCIPLES OFENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERINGAND SCIENCE 11Where Do We Start  11A Short Outline of This Book 111 C6 ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS OVERVIEW 12Systems as Such 12Water Resource Management System 13Air Resource Management System 17Solid Waste Management 17Multimedia Systems 19Sustainability 191 C7 ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION AND REGULATION 19Acts, Laws, and Regulations 191 C8 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS 22Case 1: To Add or Not to Add 22Case 2: You Can’t Do Everything At Once 23Chapter Review 23Problems 24Discussion Questions 25References 292 Chemistry 31Case Study: To MTBE or Not to MTBE  322 C1 INTRODUCTION 322 C2 BASIC CHEMICAL CONCEPTS 33Atoms, Elements, and the Periodic Table 33Chemical Bonds and Intermolecular Forces 34The Mole, Molar Units, and Activity Units 36Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry 37Chemical Equilibrium 44Reaction Kinetics 562 C3 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 61Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes 62Aryl (Aromatic) Compounds 63Functional Groups and Classes of Compounds 632 C4 WATER CHEMISTRY 64Physical Properties of Water 64States of Solution Impurities 65Concentration Units in Aqueous Solutionsor Suspensions 66Buffers 692 C5 SOIL CHEMISTRY 752 C6 ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY 76Fundamentals of Gases 78Chapter Review 80Problems 81Discussion Questions 86References 863 Biology 89Case Study: Poison Water  903 C1 INTRODUCTION 913 C2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LIFE 91Carbohydrates 91Nucleic Acids 93Proteins 96Lipids 96dav22351_fm.qxd 12/14/07 10:40 Page ivContents vReactors 149Reactor Analysis 1504 C4 ENERGY BALANCES 158First Law of Thermodynamics 158Fundamentals 159Second Law of Thermodynamics 166Chapter Review 168Problems 169Discussion Questions 176References 1775 Ecosystems 179Case Study: DDT—Curse or Blessing  1805 C1 INTRODUCTION 181Ecosystems 1815 C2 HUMAN INFLUENCES ONECOSYSTEMS 1815 C3 ENERGYAND MASS FLOW 182Bioaccumulation 1875 C4 NUTRIENT CYCLES 189Carbon Cycle 189Nitrogen Cycle 190Phosphorus Cycle 193Sulfur Cycle 1945 C5 POPULATION DYNAMICS 195Bacterial Population Growth 195Animal Population Dynamics 197Human Population Dynamics 2025 C6 LAKES: AN EXAMPLE OF MASS ANDENERGY CYCLING IN AN ECOSYSTEM 205Stratification and Turnover in Deep Lakes 206Biological Zones 207Lake Productivity 208Eutrophication 2125 C7 ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS TOPROTECT ECOSYSTEMS 214Chapter Review 215Problems 216Discussion Questions 219References 2196 Risk Perception, Assessment,and Management 221Case Study: No Swimming! 2226 C1 INTRODUCTION 2226 C2 RISK PERCEPTION 2223 C3 THE CELL 98Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes 100Cell Membrane 101Cell Organelles of Eukaryotes 103Cell Organelles of Plant Cells 109Cell Organelles of Prokaryotes 1093 C4 ENERGYAND METABOLISM 109Cells, Matter, and Energy 1103 C5 CELLULAR REPRODUCTION 112The Cell Cycle 112Asexual Reproduction 114Sexual Reproduction 1143 C6 DIVERSITY OF LIVING THINGS 1153 C7 PROKARYOTES 116Archaea 117Bacteria 1173 C8 PROTISTS 120Protozoa 120Algae 122Slime Molds and Water Molds 1253 C9 FUNGI 125Chytridiomycota 125Zygomycota 125Ascomycota 125Basidiomycota 126Deuteromyceta 1263 C10 VIRUSES 1273 C11 MICROBIAL DISEASE 1283 C12 MICROBIAL TRANSFORMATIONS 129Chapter Review 130Discussion Questions 131References 1324 Materials and EnergyBalances 1334 C1 INTRODUCTION 1344 C2 UNIFYING THEORIES 134Conservation of Matter 134Conservation of Energy 134Conservation of Matter and Energy 1344 C3 MATERIALS BALANCES 135Fundamentals 135Time as a Factor 136More Complex Systems 137Efficiency 140The State of Mixing 143Including Reactions 145dav22351_fm.qxd 12/14/07 23:23 Page v6 C3 RISK ASSESSMENT 224Data Collection and Evaluation 225Toxicity Assessment 225Exposure Assessment 231Risk Characterization 2376 C4 RISK MANAGEMENT 238Chapter Review 238Problems 239Discussion Questions 241References 2417 Hydrology 243Case Study: The Dying of a Sea 2447 C1 FUNDAMENTALS OF HYDROLOGY 246The Hydrological Cycle 2467 C2 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION,EVAPORATION, INFILTRATION, ANDSTREAMFLOW 254Precipitation 254Evaporation 257Infiltration 260Streamflow 2627 C3 GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY 264Aquifers 2657 C4 GROUNDWATER FLOW 2697 C5 WELL HYDRAULICS 273Definition of Terms 273Cone of Depression 2757 C6 SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER AS AWATER SUPPLY 2807 C7 DEPLETION OF GROUNDWATER AND SURFACE WATER 281Water Use 281Land Subsidence 281Chapter Review 283Problems 284Discussion Questions 286References 2868 Sustainable Energy,Mineral and Soil Resources 289Case Study: A New Precious Metal—Copper! 2908 C1 INTRODUCTION 290Sustainable Development 2908 C2 ENERGY RESOURCES 291Coal Formation 291Petroleum Formation 292Fossil Fuel Reserves 293Nuclear Energy 295Environmental Impacts 296Terrain Effects 299Sustainable Energy Sources 299Energy Conservation 3068 C3 MINERAL RESOURCES 310Reserves 310Environmental Impacts 311Resource Conservation 3128 C4 SOIL RESOURCES 315Energy Storage 315Plant Production 3158 C5 PARAMETERS OF SOIL SUSTAINABILITY 316Nutrient Cycling 316Soil Acidity 318Soil Salinity 318Texture and Structure 3198 C6 SOIL CONSERVATION 319Soil Management 319Soil Erosion 320Chapter Review 326Problems 326Discussion Questions 328References 3289 Water QualityManagement 331Case Study: There She Blows! 3329 C1 INTRODUCTION 3349 C2 WATER POLLUTANTSAND THEIR SOURCES 335Point Sources 335Nonpoint Sources 335Oxygen-Demanding Material 335Nutrients 336Pathogenic Organisms 338Suspended Solids 338Salts 339Pesticides 339Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 341Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals 342Other Organic Chemicals 343Arsenic 343Toxic Metals 344Heat 345Nanoparticles 3469 C3 WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENTIN RIVERS 346Effect of Oxygen-Demanding Wastes on Rivers 347Biochemical Oxygen Demand 347vi Contentsdav22351_fm.qxd 12/14/07 10:40 Page viLaboratory Measurement of Biochemical Oxygen Demand 352Additional Notes on Biochemical Oxygen Demand 355Nitrogen Oxidation 356DO Sag Curve 357Effect of Nutrients on Water Quality in Rivers 3739 C4 WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN LAKES 374Control of Phosphorus in Lakes 374Acidification of Lakes 3789 C5 WATER QUALITY IN ESTUARIES 3859 C6 WATER QUALITY IN OCEANS 3869 C7 GROUNDWATER QUALITY 389Contaminant Migration in Groundwaters 389Chapter Review 393Problems 394Discussion Questions 399References 39910 Water Treatment 403Case Study: Walkerton—The Town Where Kids Died from E. coli 40410 C1 INTRODUCTION 405Water Quality 407Physical Characteristics 408Chemical Characteristics 408Microbiological Characteristics 408Radiological Characteristics 409U.S. Water Quality Standards 409Water Classification and Treatment Systems 41010 C2 RAPID MIXING, FLOCCULATION,AND COAGULATION 412Colloid Stability and Destabilization 413Coagulants 413Mixing and Flocculation 41610 C3 SOFTENING 419Hardness 419Lime CSoda Softening 425Ion-Exchange Softening 42810 C4 SEDIMENTATION 430Overview 430Determination of Settling Velocity (vs) 431Determination of Overflow Rate (v0) 43310 C5 FILTRATION 43410 C6 DISINFECTION 437Disinfection Kinetics 438Disinfectants and Disinfection By-Products 438Chlorine Reactions in Water 440Chlorine Dioxide 441Ozonation 441Ultraviolet Radiation 44210 C7 OTHER TREATMENT PROCESSES FOR DRINKING WATER 442Membrane Processes 442Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) 443Carbon Adsorption 443Aeration 44310 C8 WATER PLANT RESIDUALS MANAGEMENT 444Mass-Balance Analysis 445Sludge Treatment 446Ultimate Disposal 451Chapter Review 451Problems 452Discussion Questions 454References 45511 Wastewater Treatment 457Case Study: Cuyahoga River Burning 45811 C1 INTRODUCTION 459Wastewater Treatment Perspective 45911 C2 CHARACTERISTICS OF DOMESTIC WASTEWATER 460Physical Characteristics 460Chemical Characteristics 460Characteristics of Industrial Wastewater 46111 C3 WASTEWATER TREATMENT STANDARDS 463Pretreatment of Industrial Wastes 46411 C4 ON-SITE DISPOSAL SYSTEMS 465Alternative On-Site Treatmentand Disposal Systems with Water 465On-Site Treatment and Disposal Systems for Unfavorable Site Conditions 469Other On-Site Treatmentand Disposal Options 471Alternative On-Site Treatment CDisposalSystems Without Water 47111 C5 MUNICIPALWASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS 47311 C6 UNIT OPERATIONS OF PRETREATMENT 474Bar Racks 474Grit Chambers 474Macerators 476Equalization 476Contents viidav22351_fm.qxd 12/14/07 10:40 Page vii11 C7 PRIMARY TREATMENT 48011 C8 UNIT PROCESSES OF SECONDARYTREATMENT 481Overview 481Role of Microorganisms 481Population Dynamics 482Activated Sludge 483Trickling Filters 495Oxidation Ponds 497Rotating Biological Contactors 49911 C9 DISINFECTION 50011 C10 ADVANCED WASTEWATERTREATMENT 500Filtration 500Carbon Adsorption 501Phosphorus Removal 501Nitrogen Control 50211 C11 LAND TREATMENT FOR SUSTAINABILITY 503Slow Rate 505Overland Flow 505Rapid Infiltration 50511 C12 SLUDGE TREATMENT 505Sources and Characteristicsof Various Sludges 506Solids Computations 506Sludge Treatment Processes 50811 C13 SLUDGE DISPOSAL 515Ultimate Disposal 515Land Spreading 515Landfilling 515Dedicated Land Disposal (DLD) 515Utilization 515Sludge Disposal Regulations 515Chapter Review 516Problems 517Discussion Questions 521References 52112 Air Pollution 523Case Study: The Fog 52412 C1 INTRODUCTION 525Air Pollution Perspective 52512 C2 FUNDAMENTALS 525Pressure Relationshipsand Units of Measure 525Relativity 525Adiabatic Expansion and Compression 52512 C3 AIR POLLUTION STANDARDS 52612 C4 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS 529Effects on Materials 529Effects on Vegetation 530Effects on Health 53112 C5 ORIGIN AND FATE OF AIRPOLLUTANTS 536Carbon Monoxide 536Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs) 537Lead 537Nitrogen Dioxide 537Photochemical Oxidants 538Sulfur Oxides 538Particulates 54012 C6 MICRO AND MACRO AIR POLLUTION 540Indoor Air Pollution 540Acid Rain 544Ozone Depletion 546Global Warming 54712 C7 AIR POLLUTION METEOROLOGY 555The Atmospheric Engine 555Turbulence 556Stability 557Terrain Effects 55912 C8 ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION 561Factors Affecting Dispersionof Air Pollutants 561Dispersion Modeling 56212 C9 INDOOR AIR QUALITY MODEL 56812 C10 AIR POLLUTION CONTROLOF STATIONARY SOURCES 571Gaseous Pollutants 571Flue Gas Desulfurization 574Control Technologies for Nitrogen Oxides 575Particulate Pollutants 576Control Technologies for Mercury 57912 C11 AIR POLLUTION CONTROLOF MOBILE SOURCES 579Engine Fundamentals 579Control of Automobile Emissions 58112 C12 WASTE MINIMIZATIONFOR SUSTAINABILITY 582Chapter Review 583Problems 584Discussion Questions 585References 58613 Solid Waste Engineering 589Case Study: Too Much Waste, Too Little Space 59013 C1 INTRODUCTION 591Magnitude of the Problem 592viii Contentsdav22351_fm.qxd 12/14/07 10:40 Page viii13 C2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID WASTE 59313 C3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT 59613 C4 SOLID WASTE COLLECTION 59613 C5 WASTE AS RESOURCE 597Background and Perspective 597Green Chemistry and Green Engineering 598Recycling 598Composting 602Source Reduction 60313 C6 SOLID WASTE REDUCTION 604Combustion Processes 604Types of Incinerators 606Public Health and Environmental Issues 608Other Thermal Treatment Processes 60913 C7 DISPOSAL BY SANITARY LANDFILL 609Site Selection 610Operation 611Environmental Considerations 613Leachate 613Methane and Other Gas Production 617Landfill Design 620Landfill Closure 621Chapter Review 621Problems 622Discussion Questions 624References 62414 Hazardous Waste Management 627Case Study: Not a Good Time at the Beach 62814 C1 INTRODUCTION 628Dioxins and PCBs 62814 C2 EPA’S HAZARDOUS WASTEDESIGNATION SYSTEM 63014 C3 RCRAAND HSWA 631Congressional Actions on Hazardous Waste 631Cradle-to-Grave Concept 631Generator Requirements 633Transporter Regulations 634Treatment, Storage, and DisposalRequirements 635Underground Storage Tanks 63714 C4 CERCLAAND SARA 638The Superfund Law 638The National Priority List 638The Hazard Ranking System 638The National Contingency Plan 639Liability 640Superfund Amendmentsand Reauthorization Act 64014 C5 HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT 641Waste Minimization 641Waste Exchange 644Recycling 64414 C6 TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES 645Biological Treatment 645Chemical Treatment 647Physical/Chemical Treatment 650Incineration 655Stabilization CSolidification 66214 C7 LAND DISPOSAL 662Deep Well Injection 662Land Treatment 663The Secure Landfill 66314 C8 GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATIONAND REMEDIATION 667The Process of Contamination 667EPA’s Groundwater Remediation Procedure 667Mitigation and Treatment 669Chapter Review 676Problems 677Discussion Questions 682References 68215 Noise Pollution 68515 C1 INTRODUCTION 686Properties of Sound Waves 687Sound Power and Intensity 688Levels and the Decibel 689Characterization of Noise 69115 C2 EFFECTS OF NOISE ON PEOPLE 695The Hearing Mechanism 695Normal Hearing 698Hearing Impairment 700Damage-Risk Criteria 702Speech Interference 702Annoyance 703Sleep Interference 704Effects on Performance 705Acoustic Privacy 70515 C3 RATING SYSTEMS 706Goals of a Noise-Rating System 706The LN Concept 706The Leq Concept 707The Ldn Concept 70815 C4 COMMUNITY NOISE SOURCESAND CRITERIA 708Transportation Noise 708Other Internal Combustion Engines 709Construction Noise 710Contents ixdav22351_fm.qxd 12/14/07 10:40 Page ix Zoning and Siting Considerations 711Levels to Protect Health and Welfare 71215 C5 TRANSMISSION OF SOUNDOUTDOORS 712Inverse Square Law 712Radiation Fields of a Sound Source 714Directivity 714Airborne Transmission 71515 C6 TRAFFIC NOISE PREDICTION 716Leq Prediction 716Ldn Prediction 71615 C7 NOISE CONTROL 717Source-Path-Receiver Concept 717Control of Noise Source by Design 717Noise Control in the Transmission Path 719Control of Noise Source by Redress 721Protect the Receiver 721Chapter Review 722Problems 723Discussion Questions 726References 72716 Ionizing Radiation 72916 C1 FUNDAMENTALS 730Atomic Structure 730Radioactivity and Radiation 731Radioactive Decay 733Radioisotopes 736Fission 737The Production of X-Rays 738Radiation Dose 74016 C2 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OFIONIZING RADIATION 742Sequential Pattern of Biological Effects 742Determinants of Biological Effects 742Acute Effects 744Relation of Dose to Type of AcuteRadiation Syndrome 744Delayed Effects 745Genetic Effects 74716 C3 RADIATION STANDARDS 74816 C4 RADIATION EXPOSURE 750External and Internal Radiation Hazards 750Natural Background 750X-Rays 751Radionuclides 752Nuclear Reactor Operations 752Radioactive Wastes 75316 C5 RADIATION PROTECTION 753Reduction of External Radiation Hazards 753Reduction of Internal Radiation Hazards 75716 C6 RADIOACTIVE WASTE 758Types of Waste 758Management of High-LevelRadioactive Waste 759Waste Isolation Pilot Plant 760Management of Low-LevelRadioactive Waste 760Long-Term Management and Containment 763Chapter Review 765Problems 766Discussion Questions 767References 767AppendixA Properties of Air, Water, andSelected Chemicals 769Credits 775Index 777

章節(jié)摘錄

1-1 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE?Natural ScienceIn the broadest sense, science is systematized knowledge derived from and tested by recognition and formulation of a problem, collection of data through observation, and experimentation. We differentiate between social science and natural science in that the former deals with the study ofpeople and how they live together as families, tribes, communities, races, and nations, and the latter deals with the study of nature and the physical world. Natural science includes such diverse disciplines as biology, chemistry, geology, physics, and environmental science.Environmental ScienceWhereas the disciplines of biology, chemistry, and physics (and their subdisciplines of microbiology, organic chemistry, nuclear physics, etc.) are focused on a particular aspect of natural science, environmental science in its broadest sense encompasses all the fields of natural science. The historical focus of study for environmental scientists has been, of course, the natural environment.By this, we mean the atmosphere, the land, the water and their inhabitants as differentiated from the built environment. Modern environmental science has also found applications tothe built environment or, perhaps more correctly, to the effusions from the built environment.Quantitative Environmental ScienceScience or, perhaps more correctly, the scientific method, deals with data, that is, with recorded observations. The data are, of course, a sample of the universe of possibilities. They may be representative or they may be skewed. Even if they are representative they will contain some random variation that cannot be explained with current knowledge. Care and impartiality in gathering and recording data, as well as independent verification, are the cornerstones of science.When the collection and organization of data reveal certain regularities, it may be possible to formulate a generalization or hypothesis. This is merely a statement that under certain circumstances certain phenomena can generally be observed. Many generalizations are statistical in that they apply accurately to large assemblages but are no more than probabilities when applied to smaller sets or individuals.In a scientific approach, the hypothesis is tested, revised, and tested again until it is proven acceptable.If we can use certain assumptions to tie together a set of generalizations, we formulate a theory.For example, theories that have gained acceptance over a long time are known as laws. Some examples are the laws of motion, which describe the behavior of moving bodies, and the gaslaws, which describe the behavior of gases. The development of a theory is an important accomplishment because it yields a tremendous consolidation of knowledge. Furthermore, a theorygives us a powerful new tool in the acquisition of knowledge for it shows us where to look for new generalizations. “Thus, the accumulation of data becomes less of a magpie collection offacts and more of a systematized hunt for needed information. It is the existence of classification and generalization, and above all theory that makes science an organized body of knowledge” (Wright, 1964).Logic is a part of all theories. The two types of logic are qualitative and quantitative logic.Qualitative logic is descriptive. For example we can qualitatively state that when the amount of wastewater entering a certain river is too high, the fish die. With qualitative logic we cannot identify what “too high” means we need quantitative logic to do that.When the data and generalizations are quantitative, we need mathematics to provide a theory that shows the quantitative relationships. For example, a quantitative statement about theriver might state that “When the mass of organic matter entering a certain river equals x kilograms per day, the amount of oxygen in the stream is y.”Perhaps more importantly, quantitative logic enables us to explore ‘What if?’ questions about relationships. For example, “If we reduce the amount of organic matter entering the stream,dav22351_ch01.qxd 12/14/07 9:53 AM Page 2 how much will the amount of oxygen in the stream increase?” Furthermore, theories, and in particular,mathematical theories, often enable us to bridge the gap between experimentally controlled observations and observations made in the field. For example, if we control the amount ofoxygen in a fish tank in the laboratory, we can determine the minimum amount required for the fish to be healthy. We can then use this number to determine the acceptable mass of organic matter placed in the stream.Given that environmental science is an organized body of knowledge about environmental relationships, then quantitative environmental science is an organized collection of mathematical theories that may be used to describe and explore environmental relationships.In this book, we provide an introduction to some mathematical theories that may be used to describe and explore relationships in environmental science.1–2 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING? 什么是環(huán)境工程?Engineering 工程Engineering is a profession that applies science and mathematics to make the properties of matter and sources of energy useful in structures, machines, products, systems, and processes.Environmental Engineering 環(huán)境工程The Environmental Engineering Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) has published the following statement of purpose that may be used to show the relationship betweenenvironmental science and environmental engineering:Environmental engineering is manifest by sound engineering thought and practice in the solution of problems of environmental sanitation, notably in the provision of safe, palatable, and ample public water supplies; the proper disposal of or recycle of wastewater and solid wastes; the adequate drainage of urban and rural areas for proper sanitation; and the control of water, soil, and atmospheric pollution, and the social and environmental impact of these solutions. Furthermore it is concerned with engineering problems in the field of public health, such as control of arthropod-borne diseases, the elimination of industrial health hazards, and the provision of adequate sanitation in urban, rural, and recreational areas, and the effect of technological advances on the environment (ASCE, 1977).Neither environmental science nor environmental engineering should be confused with heating, ventilating, or air conditioning (HVAC), nor with landscape architecture. Neither should they be confused with the architectural and structural engineering functions associated with built environments, such as homes, offices, and other workplaces.1-3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 歷史的觀點(diǎn)Overview 概要Recognizing that environmental science has its roots in the natural sciences and that the most rudimentary forms of generalization about natural processes are as old as civilizations, then environmental science is indeed very old. Certainly, the Inca cultivation of crops and the mathematicsof the Maya and Sumerians qualify as early applications of natural science. Likewise the Egyptian prediction and regulation of the annual floods of the Nile demonstrate that environmental engineering works are as old as civilization. On the other hand if you asked Archimedes or Newton or Pasteur what field of environmental engineering and science they worked in, they would have given you a puzzled look indeed! For that matter, even as late as 1687 the word science was not in vogue; Mr. Newton’s treatise alludes only to Philosophiae Naturalis Principa Mathematics (Natural Philosophy and Mathematical Principles).1-3 Historical Perspective 3 dav22351_ch01.qxd 12/14/07 9:53 AM Page 3.4 Chapter 1 IntroductionEngineering and the sciences as we recognize them today began to blossom in the 18th century. The foundation of environmental engineering as a discipline may be considered to coincidewith the formation of the various societies of civil engineering in the mid-1800s (e.g., the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1852). In the first instances and well into the 20th century, environmental engineering was known as sanitary engineering because of its roots in waterpurification. The name changed in the late 1960s and early 1970s to reflect the broadening scope that included not only efforts to purify water but also air pollution, solid waste management and the many other aspects of environmental protection that are included in the environmental engineer’scurrent job description.Although we might be inclined to date the beginnings of environmental science to the 18th century, the reality is that at any time before the 1960s there was virtually no reference to environmental science in the literature.Although the concepts of ecology had been firmly established by the 1940s and certainly more than one individual played a role, perhaps the harbinger of environmental science as weknow it today was Rachel Carson and, in particular, her book Silent Spring (Carson, 1962). By the mid-1970s environmental science was firmly established in academia, and by the 1980s recognized subdisciplines (environmental chemistry, environmental biology, etc.) that characterize the older disciplines of natural sciences had emerged.Hydrology Citations for the following section originally appeared in Chow’s Handbook of Applied Hydrology (1964). The modern science of hydrology may be considered to have begun in the 17th century with measurements. Measurements of rainfall, evaporation, and capillarity in the Seine were taken by Perrault (1678). Mariotte (1686) computed the flow in the Seine after measuring the cross section of the channel and the velocity of the flow.The 18th century was a period of experimentation. The predecessors for some of our current tools for measurement were invented in this period. These include Bernoulli’s piezometer, the Pitot tube, Woltman’s current meter, and the Borda tube. Chézy proposed his equation to describe uniform flow in open channels in 1769.The grand era of experimental hydrology was the 19th century. The knowledge of geology was applied to hydrologic problems. Hagen (1839) and Poiseulle (1840) developed the equationto describe capillary flow, Darcy published his law of groundwater flow (1856), and Dupuit developed a formula for predicting flow from a well (1863).During the 20th century, hydrologists moved from empiricism to theoretically based explanations of hydrologic phenomena. For example, Hazen (1930) implemented the use of statisticsin hydrologic analysis, Horton (1933) developed the method for determining rainfall excess based on infiltration theory, and Theis (1935) introduced the nonequilibrium theory of hydraulicsof wells. The advent of high-speed computers at the end of the 20th century led to the use of finite element analysis for predicting the migration of contaminants in soil.

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