焦點(diǎn)與級(jí)差

前言

　　楊小璐是我在香港中文大學(xué)英文系從事教研工作期間（1987-1998年）所指導(dǎo)的、專攻一語(yǔ)研究的第一位博士生。①她的博士論文從語(yǔ)言學(xué)理論角度，在形式語(yǔ)義學(xué)的基礎(chǔ)上，通過(guò)五種不同的實(shí)驗(yàn)手段，研究4至8歲普通話兒童對(duì)“才”和“就”的理解和使用，從而了解級(jí)差詞語(yǔ)和限制焦點(diǎn)的認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)。作為級(jí)差詞語(yǔ)，“才”和“就”跟句法語(yǔ)義界面有密切的關(guān)系，跨越數(shù)量、時(shí)間和條件假設(shè)三個(gè)認(rèn)知領(lǐng)域，涉及說(shuō)話者的預(yù)期和實(shí)際情況之間的級(jí)差關(guān)系。例如，句（1a）的“才”標(biāo)記著，在時(shí)間軸上，“他三點(diǎn)來(lái)”這個(gè)事件比說(shuō)話者預(yù)期的晚；（1b）的“就”則標(biāo)記事件的發(fā)生比預(yù)期早。句（2a）和（2b）反映這兩個(gè)級(jí)差詞在數(shù)量軸上的對(duì)立：前者表示，實(shí)際數(shù)量比說(shuō)話者預(yù)期量多，而后者則表示實(shí)際量少于預(yù)期量。在表示條件假設(shè)方面，“才”表達(dá)必要條件，而“就”則表達(dá)充分條件。句（3a）表示，放紅色球是天平秤翹起來(lái)的必要條件，若放別的球，天平秤一定不會(huì)翹起來(lái)；句（3b）則表示，如果放紅色球，天平秤必定翹起；但如不放紅色球，天平秤也一樣有可能翹起。

內(nèi)容概要

兒童的語(yǔ)義習(xí)得近年來(lái)一直是語(yǔ)言學(xué)、心理語(yǔ)言學(xué)等學(xué)科研究的熱門領(lǐng)域，也是語(yǔ)言與認(rèn)知研究的熱點(diǎn)。本書從理論語(yǔ)言學(xué)的角度出發(fā)，結(jié)合當(dāng)代心理語(yǔ)言學(xué)的實(shí)驗(yàn)研究方法，嚴(yán)格按照國(guó)際主流兒童語(yǔ)言習(xí)得研究的實(shí)驗(yàn)程序和理論假設(shè)對(duì)漢語(yǔ)兒童焦點(diǎn)敏感詞“才”／“就”與焦點(diǎn)、級(jí)差表征有關(guān)的句法和語(yǔ)義知識(shí)進(jìn)行了多方面的考察，揭示了漢語(yǔ)兒童認(rèn)知發(fā)展與焦點(diǎn)、級(jí)差結(jié)構(gòu)表征之間的內(nèi)在關(guān)系，探討了生成語(yǔ)法規(guī)則、語(yǔ)言環(huán)境、認(rèn)知在語(yǔ)義習(xí)得中的作用。作者從級(jí)差語(yǔ)義發(fā)展與認(rèn)知、語(yǔ)義與語(yǔ)用發(fā)展交互作用的角度對(duì)實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果做了有說(shuō)服力的解釋。從謂語(yǔ)焦點(diǎn)結(jié)構(gòu)與自然語(yǔ)言中信息表達(dá)的非標(biāo)記性結(jié)構(gòu)（即主題一述語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)）的同構(gòu)性以及英漢句子結(jié)構(gòu)的差異方面探討了漢語(yǔ)兒童與英語(yǔ)兒童對(duì)限制焦點(diǎn)理解的異同，對(duì)語(yǔ)言的共性和個(gè)性與語(yǔ)言習(xí)得之間的關(guān)系做了積極的理論探討。

作者簡(jiǎn)介

楊小璐，清華大學(xué)外語(yǔ)系副教授，清華大學(xué)心理學(xué)與認(rèn)知科學(xué)中心兼職研究人員。香港中文大學(xué)現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言與文化系語(yǔ)言學(xué)博士，美國(guó)麻省理工大學(xué)腦與認(rèn)知科學(xué)系訪問(wèn)學(xué)者（2005年）。研究方向是語(yǔ)言習(xí)得、心理語(yǔ)言學(xué)以及語(yǔ)言與認(rèn)知。目前關(guān)注的是兒童句法、語(yǔ)義發(fā)展，希望透過(guò)兒童的

書籍目錄

Chapter One  Introduction　1.1  Focus and Scales. Only and Even　1.2  CAI and JIU in Mandarin Chinese　1.3  Significance of the Present Study　1.4  Overview of the BookChapter Two  Semantics and Pragmatics of CAI and JIU　2.1  Introduction　2.2  CAI and JIU as Scalar Focus Particles　2.3  CAI and JIU in the Time Domain　2.4  CAI and JIU in the Quantity Domain　2.5  CAI and JIU in the Conditional Domain　2.6  CAI and JIU as Restrictive Focus Operators　　2.6.1  A distinction between pre-foci and post-loci CAI and JIU    2.6.2  Restrictive CAI/JIU. and ZHI　    2.6.2.1  Restrictive focus operator ZHI in Mandarin Chinese  　　2.6.2.2  CAI and JIU as restrictive focus operators  2.7  SummaryChapter Three  Investigating CAI and JIU in Acquisition: Rationale and Research Hypotheses　3.1  Time/Quantity CAI/JIU and Scales in Acquisition   3.2  Time, Quantity, and Conditional　  CAI/JIU Acquisition　3.3  Restrictive Focus in Acquisition　3.4  A Preliminary Survey of CAI and JIU in Children's Natural Speech Chapter Four  The Acquisition of CAI/JIU.  Experiments (I)　4.1  Elicited Imitation Study. Children's Understanding of CAI/JIU Co-occurrence Restrictions　  4.1.1  Method      4.1.1.1  Subjects　    4.1.1.2  Test design　    4.1.1.3  Procedure　  4.1.2  Results　    4.1.2.1  Analysis of correct imitation　　  4.1.2.1.1  Overall accuracy　　  4.1.2.1.2  Effects of sentence type　　  4.1.2.1.3  Effects of domain on FCR items  　    4.1.2.2  Analysis of incorrect imitation　　  4.1.2.2.1  Overview of changes　　  4. 1.2.2.2 Changes made with VCR and TRI items　　  4.1.2.2.3  Changes made with VCR and TRI items by domain　　  4.1.2. 2. 4  Deletion errors by domain　   4.1.3  Discussion  　4.2  Sentence Selection Study: Children's Understanding of CAI/JIU in Context　   4.2.1  Method  ……Chapter Five The Acquistion of Restrictive Focus: ExperimentsChapter Six General Discussion and ConclusionBibliographyAppendices后記

章節(jié)摘錄

　　Recall the scalar differences between CAI and JIU. For CAI,the asserted element is always located farther up on the scale than the expeeted element, hence the later-than-expected or morethan-expected implictures. For JIU, the asserted element is always located farther down on the scale than the expected element,thus generating the earlier-than-expected or less-than-expected implicatures. Following this characterization, it seems that CAI evokes scales directed upward and JIU evokes scales directed downward.The asserted element highlighted by CAI is evaluated as higher than the speakers expectation, whereas the asserted element marked by JIU is evaluated as lower than the speakers expectation.However,this is not an accurate cognitive model of the CAI/JIU scales. From a cognitive view of CAI/JIU, it is the asserted element that serves as the point of reference rather than the expected element.An example helps us to understand this point. When uttering sentences like （3）, the speaker not only tells the hearer that Lisi came at three oclock but also conveys by using CAI and JIU his evaluation of whether Lisi came late or early as compared to his expectation.

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